Scientists Who Got In Trouble for Being Right, with Matt Kaplan

Galileo Galilei's 'Il Saggiatore' (The Assayer) established the scientific method: questioning, exploring, and concluding based on evidence. Despite challenging the Church's geocentric view, Galileo survived the Inquisition due to his exceptional diplomatic skills, charisma, and powerful political connections, including the Grand Duke of Tuscany and the ambassador to Rome. He strategically dedicated his controversial work to influential figures and published in Italian to reach a wider audience, demonstrating that scientific success can depend as much on social and political acumen as on discovery.

Galileo's discourse on comets and 'Il Saggiatore' (04:32), his friendship with powerful figures like Ferdinando Demedichi (37:49), and his publication in Italian (37:06).

In the 1840s, Hungarian obstetrician Ignaz Semmelweis observed a 21% mortality rate from childbed fever in the doctors' ward compared to 5-6% in the nurses' ward. He deduced that 'death aura' from cadavers on doctors' hands was the cause and introduced handwashing with chloride of lime, reducing the death rate to zero. Despite irrefutable data, his findings were rejected due to professional ego, his own political missteps, and the economic interests tied to existing medical practices (e.g., the leech industry). Semmelweis was fired, exiled, and eventually died in an insane asylum.

Comparison of mortality rates in hospital wards (18:42), discovery of chloride of lime's effect (21:05), reduction of infection rate from 21% to 0% (21:40), and his eventual exile and death in an asylum (24:23).

Louis Pasteur, celebrated for his vaccine discoveries, achieved much of his success through unethical means. His private journals, revealed a century later, showed he plagiarized Henry Toussaint's heat-treatment method for the anthrax vaccine, despite publicly discrediting Toussaint. He similarly stole Pierre Galtier's rabies vaccine mechanism, tested it on people, and buried evidence of fatalities. Pasteur's success was largely attributed to his theatrical demonstrations, political savvy, and ruthless suppression of rivals, rather than purely scientific integrity.

Revelation of Pasteur's fraudulent use of Toussaint's method for anthrax vaccine (29:01), plagiarism of Galtier's rabies vaccine and burying evidence of deaths (29:33), and his political manipulation (26:13).

Kati Kariko's pioneering research into messenger RNA (mRNA) in the 1990s faced decades of rejection. Her grant applications were denied because mRNA was considered an 'out-there' idea that fell apart in animals, leading to her demotion and eventual firing from the university. Her perseverance, however, led her to partner with immunologist Drew Weissman, who identified the immune system's attack on synthetic mRNA. Their collaboration, which involved modifying mRNA to evade immune detection, paved the way for the rapid development of the COVID-19 vaccine and earned Kariko a Nobel Prize, highlighting the systemic bias against truly novel research.

Kariko's mRNA research in the '90s (41:53), rejection of grants and demotion/firing (43:05), partnership with Drew Weissman (44:01), and her eventual Nobel Prize (44:48).

The COVID-19 pandemic exposed the scientific process—with its inherent debates, evolving understanding, and occasional retractions—to a public accustomed to science providing definitive answers. This transparency, though essential, led to widespread doubt and anti-science sentiment. Effective science communication must educate the public on how science actually works: as a dynamic, skeptical, and self-correcting enterprise where arguments and changing conclusions are normal, not signs of failure.

Neil deGrasse Tyson's suggestion for weekly updates on COVID-19 knowledge and recommendations (1:09:32), the host's observation about public confusion during the pandemic (50:40), and the guest's call for scientists and journalists to better explain the scientific process (50:09).